Utilizing of Flaxseed on Rumen Digestion, Some Physiological Traits, and Milk Yield
Main Article Content
Abstract
Flaxseeds are one of the potential oil seeds packed with excellent amount of nutrition and possess various health benefits. Interestingly, flax seeds' health benefits are mainly attributed to the omega-3 fatty acids, lignans and fiber they contain. It is used in different forms, such as whole and flour.This review provides an overview of the impact of flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) on various aspects of health, including its effects on fermentation, volatile fatty acids, digestibility, milk yield, physiological action, ovarian and reproductive state, folliculogenesis, in vitro fertilization (IVF) performance, reproductive hormones, embryo production, and plasma and glucose levels in dairy cows. The impacts could be evaluated by flaxseed lignin, alpha-linoleic acid, and their derivatives. Flaxseed is abundant in α-linoleic acid (ALA) and can potentially enhance omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid in the milk of dairy cows. Nevertheless, the impact of various forms of flaxseed supplementation on rumen fermentation remains uncertain. Various intracellular signaling pathways, binding proteins, receptors, metabolic and reproductive hormones, and their overall behavior might be affected by alterations. Flaxseed oil did not affect the pH and NH3-N levels in the rumen. Additionally, consuming flaxseed may offer health advantages for humans. Their actions can be mediated by a variety of intracellular signaling pathways, including protein kinases, transcription factors that control cell proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and malignant transformation; alterations in general metabolism; reproductive and metabolic hormones; and receptors. The purpose of this study is to provide a general overview of the nutritional profile, health benefits, value-added products, and toxicity of flaxseeds.
Article Details

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Lei Xu, Wei Z, Guo B, Bai R, Liu J, Li Y, Sun W, Jiang X, Li X, and Pi Y. Flaxseed Meal and Its Application in Animal Husbandry: A Review. Agriculture 2022; 12, 2027.
Shim YY, Gui B, Wang Y and Reaney MJT. Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) oil processing and selected products. Trends Food Sci. Tech. 2015; 43, 162–177.
Hao XY, Yu SC, Mu CT, Wu XD, Zhang CX, Zhao JX, and Zhang JX. Replacing soybean meal with flax seed meal: effects on nutrient digestibility, rumen microbial protein synthesis and growth performance in sheep. Animal,2020; 14:9, pp 1841–1848.
Zagorakis K, Liamadis D and Milis C. Nutrient digestibility and in situ degradability of alternatives to soybean meal protein sources for sheep. Small Ruminant Research 2015;124, 38–44.
Borowiec F, Micek P, Marcinski M, Barteczko J, and Zajac T. Linseed-based diet for sheep. 2. Performance and chemical composition of meat and liver. Journal of Animal and Feed Sciences, 2004; 13: 19-22.
Dai X and Faciola AP. Evaluating strategies to reduce ruminal protozoa and their impacts on nutrient utilization and animal performance in ruminants—A meta-analysis. Front. Microbiol. 2019; 10, 2648.
Machmüller A, Ossowski DA and Kreuzer M. Comparative evaluation of coconut oil, oilseeds and crystalline fat on methane release, digestion and energy balance in lambs. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2000; 85: 41-60.
Shayan M, Kamalian S, Sahebkar A and Tayarani-Najaran Z. Flaxseed for health and disease: Review of clinical trials. Comb Chem High Throughput Screen; 2020; 23: 699–722.
Abdullah IN, Khalaf RM, Al-Abbasy E GH, and Mohammed ThT. Effect of flaxseed oil dosing on fertility, growth characteristics, and some physical, biochemical, and hormonal blood parameters during the early pregnancy of Awassi ewes. Revis Bionatura; 2022; 7(4) 5.
Zhang WJ, Xu ZR, Zhao SH, Sun JY and Yang X. Development of a microbial fermentation process for detoxification of gossypol in cottonseed meal. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2007; 135:176–186.
Feng AJ, Ye M, Wu CF and Wang JH. Detoxification technology of linseed through pichiapastoris GS115-Ch-Glu. The Food Ind. 2015; 36:105–107 (in Chinese).
Jazi V, Ashayerizadeh A, Toghyani M, AShabani M, Tellez G and Toghyani M. Fermented soybean meal exhibits probiotic properties when included in Japanese quail diet in replacement of soybean meal. Poult. Sci. 2018; 97:2113–2122.
Pi Y, Ma L, Pierce KM, Wang HR, Xu JC and Bu DP. Rubber seed oil and flaxseed oil supplementation alter digestion, ruminal fermentation, and rumen fatty acid profile of dairy cows. Animal 2019; 13, 2811–2820.
Chung YH, Zhou M, Holtshausen L, Alexander TW and McAllister TA. A fibrinolytic enzyme additive for lactating Holstein cow diets: Ruminal fermentation, rumen microbial populations, and enteric methane emissions. J. Dairy Sci., 2012; 95: 1419-1427.
Xue MY, Sun HZ, Wu XH, Guan LL and Liu JX. à Assessment of rumen bacteria in dairy cows with varied milk protein yield. J. Dairy Sci. 2019; 102, 5031–5041.
Guoxin H, Ning Li, Kaizhen L, Jiyong Y, Shengguo Z, Nan Z, Jinhui Z , Yangdong Z and Jiaqi W. Effect of Flaxseed Supplementation in Diet of Dairy Cow on the Volatile Organic Compounds of Raw Milk by HS-GC–IMS. Frontiers in Nutrition | www.frontiersin.org 2 2022 | Volume 9 |.
Slavin JL. Mechanisms for the impact of whole grain foods on cancer risk. J Am Coll Nutr 2000; 19, 300–307.
Mustafa AF, Chouinard PY and Christensen DA. Effects of feeding micronised flaxseed on yield and composition of milk from Holstein cows. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2003; 83:920–926.
Ward AT, Wittenberg KM and Przybylski R. Bovine milk fatty acid profiles produced by feeding diets containing solin, flax and canola. J. Dairy Sci. 2002; 85:1191–1196.
Allen MS. Effects of diet on short-term regulation of feed intake by lactating dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 2000; 83:1598–1624.
Gonthier C, Mustafa AF, Berthiaume R, Petit HV, Martineau R and Ouellet DR. Effects of feeding micronized and extruded flaxseed on dairy cows' ruminal fermentation and nutrient utilization. J. Dairy Sci. 2004; 87:1854–1863.
Hassan KhM, Sadq SM, Zahir HG and Salih AM. Effect of different levels of ground flaxseed on In vitro and In vivo digestibility in Karadi lambs. Res. Opin. Anim. Vet. Sci., 2014, 4(12): 644-649.
Petit HV. Digestion, milk production, milk composition, and blood composition of dairy cows fed whole flaxseed. J. Dairy Sci. 2002; 85:1482–1490.
Morsy TA, Kholif SM, Kholif AE, Matloup OH, Salem AZM and Abu Elella A. Influence of sunflower whole seeds or oil on ruminal fermentation, milk production, composition, and fatty acid profile in lactating goats. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci.2015; 28:1116-22.
Hurtaud C, Faucon F, Couvreur S and Peyraud JL. Linear relationship between increasing amounts of extruded linseed in dairy cow diet and milk fatty acid composition and butter properties. J Dairy Sci.2010; 93:1429-43.
Moallem U, Vyas D, Teter BB, Delmonte P, Zachut M and Erdman RA. Transfer rate of alpha linolenic acid from abomasally infused flaxseed oil into milk fat and the effects on milk fatty acid composition in dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 2012; 95:5276–5284.
Neveu C, Baurhoo B and Mustafa A. Effect of feeding extruded flaxseed with different grains on the performance of dairy cows and milk fatty acid profile. J. Dairy Sci. 2014; 97:1543–1551.
Do Prado RM, Palin MF, Do Prado IN, Dos Santos GT, Benchaar C and Petit HV. Milk yield, milk composition, and hepatic lipid metabolism in transition dairy cows fed flaxseed or linola. J Dairy Sci. 2016; 99:8831-46.
Petit HV. Milk production and composition, milk fatty acid profile, and blood composition of dairy cows fed different proportions of whole flaxseed in the first half of lactation. J Anim Feed Sci Technol. 2015; 205:23-30.
Zachut M, Dekel I, Lehrer H, Arieli A, Arav A, Livshitz L, Yakoby S and Moallem U. Effects of dietary fats differing in n-6:n-3 ratio fed to high-yielding dairy cows on fatty acid composition of ovarian compartments, follicular status, and oocyte quality. Journal of Dairy Science 2010; 93 529–545.
Petit HV and Côrtes C. Milk production and composition, milk fatty acid profile, and blood composition of dairy cows fed whole or ground flaxseed in the first half of lactation. J Anim Feed Sci Technol. 2010;158:36-43.
Kholif AE, Morsy TA and Abdo MM. Crushed flaxseed versus flaxseed oil in the diets of Nubian goats: effect on feed intake, digestion, ruminal fermentation, blood chemistry, milk production, milk composition and milk fatty acid profile. J Anim Feed Sci Technol. 2018;244:66-75.
Jahani-Moghadam M, Mahjoubi E and Dirandeh E. Effect of linseed feeding on blood metabolites, incidence of cystic follicles, and productive and reproductive performance in fresh Holstein dairy cows. J Dairy Sci; 2015; 98: 1828–1835.
Ambrose DJ, Kastelic JP, Corbett R, Pitney PA, Petit HV, Small JA and Zalkovic P. Lower pregnancy losses in lactating dairy cows fed a diet enriched in alpha-linolenic acid. J Dairy Sci; 2006; 89: 3066–3074.
Petit HV, Germiquet C and Lebel D. Effect of feeding whole, unprocessed sunflower seeds and flaxseed on milk production, milk composition, and prostaglandin secretion in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2004; 87: 3889– 3898.
Hutchinson IA, Hennessy AA, Waters SM, Dewhurst RJ, Evans AC, Lonergan P and Butler ST. Effect of supplementation with different fat sources on the mechanisms involved in reproductive performance in lactating dairy cattle. Theriogenology; 2012;78: 12–27.
Sacco SM, Jiang JM, Thompson LU and Ward WE. Flaxseed does not enhance the estrogenic effect of low-dose estrogen therapy on markers of uterine health in ovariectomized rats. J Med Food; 2012; 15: 846–850.
Oomar DB. Flaxseed as a functional food source. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2001;81:889–894.
Samadian F, Towhidi A, Rezayadi K, Bahreini M. Effects of dietary n-3 fatty acids on characteristics and lipid composition of ovine sperm. Animals. 2010;4:2017–2022.
Moallem U, Shafran A, Zachut M, Dekel I, Portnick Y, Arieli A. Dietary α-linolenic acid from flaxseed oil improved folliculogenesis and IVF performance in dairy cows, similar to eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids from fish oil. Reproduction 2013; 146 603–614.
Donovan DC, Schingoethe DJ, Baer RJ, Ryali J, Hippen AR and Franklin ST. Influence of dietary fish oil on conjugated linoleic acid and other fatty acids in milk fat from lactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 2000;83 2620–2628.
AbuGhazaleh AA, Schingoethe DJ, Hippen AR, Kalscheur KF and Whitlock LA. Fatty acid profiles of milk and rumen digesta from cows fed fish oil, extruded soybeans, or their blend. Journal of Dairy Science2002; 85 2266–2276.
Whitlock LA, Schingoethe DJ, Hippen AR, Kalscheur KF, Baer RJ, Ramaswamy N and Kasperson KM. Fish oil and extruded soybeans fed in combination increase conjugated linoleic acids in milk of dairy cows more than when fed separately. Journal of Dairy Science 2002; 85 234–243.
Alexander VS. Influence of Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) on Female Reproduction. Thieme. All rights reserved. Georg Thieme Verlag KG, Rüdigerstraße 2023;14, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany.
Ulfina GG, Kimothi SP, Oberoi PS, Baithalu RK, Kumaresan A, Mohanty TK, Imtiwati P and Dang AK. Modulation of post-partum reproductive performance in dairy cows through supplementation of long- or short-chain fatty acids during transition period. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl); 2015;99: 1056–1064.
Zachut M, Arieli A and Moallem U. Incorporation of dietary n-3 fatty acids into ovarian compartments in dairy cows and the effects on hormonal and behavioral patterns around estrus. Reproduction 2011; 141: 833– 840.
Sirotkin AV. Regulators of Ovarian Functions. New York, USA: Nova Publishers, Inc.; 2014; 194.
Stanhiser J, Jukic AMZ, Steiner AZ. Serum omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid concentrations and natural fertility. Hum Reprod. 2020; 35:950–7.
Mersedeh SH, S Kamalian, ahebkar A and Tayarani-Najaran Z . Flaxseed for Health and Disease: Review of Clinical Trials. Comb Chem High Throughput Screen. 2020;23(8):699-722.
Licitra G, Hernandez TM and Van PJS. Standardization of procedures for nitrogen fractionation of ruminant feeds. Animal Feed Science and Technology 2003; (57), Issue 4, 2 Pages 347-358.
Correddu F, Nudda A, Battacone G, Boe R, Francesconi AHD and Pulina G. Effects of grape seed supplementation, alone or associated with linseed, on ruminal metabolism in Sarda dairy sheep. Animal Feed Science and Technology 2015; (199), Pages 61-72.
Wallace JM, Milne JS, Redmer DA and Aitken RP. Effect of diet composition on pregnancy outcome in overnourished rapidly growing adolescent sheep. Brit J Nutr.2006;96:1060-8.
Majewska MP, Miltko R, Bełżecki G, Skomiał J and Kowalik B. Supplementation of rapeseed and linseed oils to sheep rations: effects on ruminal fermentation characteristics and protozoal populations. Czech J Anim Sci. 2017;62:527-38.
Johnson KA, Kincaid RL, Westberg HH, Gaskins CT, Lamb BK and Cronrath JD. The effect of oilseeds in diets of lactating cows on milk production and methane emissions. J Dairy Sci. 2002;85:1509-15.
Kholif AE, Morsy TA, Abd AM, Tawab E, Anele UY, Galyean ML. Effect of supplementing diets of Anglo-Nubian goats with soybean and flaxseed oils on lactational performance. J Agric Food Chem.2016;64:6163-70.